Motion pictures in education

The use of motion pictures in education and training dates back to the early 1900's when flammable 35mm nitrate based film was projected from lead lined fire proofed projection rooms in school auditoriums.
With the need to train thousands of soldiers during World War II the military set standards for the use of film in training environments. The development of 16mm safety film and the standardization of projection equipment made it possible to show the same educational film at any military training center across the nation. After the war, this technology became available to schools and the educational film market flourished as school districts began to build instructional film collections.
Although 16mm film remained the principal medium for the delivery of moving images in the classroom until the introduction of video tape, another film format entered the educational process as medium for personal instruction. The 8mm cartridge film was a format for the teaching of a single concept or process. These films were no longer than 3-5 minutes, silent, and placed in a plastic cartridge. A small portable cartridge projector such as that manufactured by Technicolor, was used to show these film loops.

Instructional media producers, during the 1960's, were actively involved in the development of self-contained 8mm concept film content producing hundreds of educational titles.
The "concept film" was looped so that a process, such as combustion within an automobile engine, could be repeatedly viewed. These short silent films required careful visual planning and production in order to effectively communicate the concepts presented. Student observational skills were enhanced using these educational materials
Most concept films were designed and marketed as part of an instructional collection to supplement a curricular area. A school could purchase, for example, a complete set of films illustrating basic principles in physics, biology, or a set related to track and field skill development. The ease of use made student access possible anywhere and at anytime.
The author made effective use of cartridge films in a basic educational media course. Work stations in the media lab were equipped with projectors and selected film cartridges. Students could independently learn how to operate a slide projector, drymount and laminate an instructional graphic, or master specific hand lettering tools. These were very effective because they were well designed and structured to teach a process within a short period of time.
Some of these short films still exist today and are archive on the web. An example is the Miller Single Concept Films in Physics series (1). The films were originally silent. These online examples, made from the original negatives produced between 1, have had a sound track added by the producer. One doesn't need to have sound to understand the content as it was designed to be viewed without it.
Unfortunately, film loops became easily worn by extensive use and poorly maintained equipment. The introduction of the video cassette quickly changed the market for the distribution of both 16mm and 8mm films. Short film segments did not fit the new format and the cartridge film and projector became audiovisual artifacts.
When video discs and players became popular during the 1980s the single concept instructional sequence re-appeared. Video disc technology allowed for single frame play and chapter searching. Now, with the availability of sound, single and short length films again gained popularity as an instructional resource.
Video discs were eventually replaced by the DVD. The DVD has not yet made effective use of chapter and frame searching characteristic of the educational video disc. Consequently, the 1990's once again saw a decline in the use of short motion picture segments for education and training.

Single concept films were educationally effective. Their use, however, was limited by the constant changes in technology.
Today's Instructional designers, especially those developing web-based instruction, realize that words alone cannot effectively communicate all ideas. The use of still images, sound, graphics, and movie clips help clarify concepts and processes. A place for single concept films has once again emerged in audiovisual pedagogy.
The design strategies used in creating the original concept films remain appropriate for today and are even more practical given the state of digital technology. Here are some examples of techniques and uses for short film sequences as instructional content.

Short motion picture sequences may be used to illustrate a single concept such as a rule, process, or to visualize of a single event that takes place over a given period of time. Special cinemagraphic techniques help make these concepts more understandable to students.

• High speed cinematography records events at several hundred film frames per second. The explosive force of a bullet shot through an apple, for example, can be played back at a normal frame rate resulting in a slow motion picture sequence of the event. Lightening and other natural or human made events which happen at great speed can be captured and played at a frame rate which allows for easy study of a concept or event. See online examples.

• Time-lapse cinematography records events that occur over a long period of time. The camera is on a timer set for activation every so many minutes or hours. The camera records a few frames and then waits until it is time to record again. The results, when played at a normal frame rate, provides the illusion of a flower blooming before our eyes, clouds forming a storm, or water freezing into ice. Time lapse cinematography condenses time where as high speed cinematography extends it. See online examples such as the rings rotating around Saturn or the rotation of Jupitor. Or choose from several options from this online collection of time lapse examples.

• Animation provides the designer with the opportunity to illustrate concepts which are not easily presented with actual cinematography. The internal operation of a steam engine would best be presented in an animated film sequence. The respiratory, digestive, or circulatory systems could be more easily visualized with a motion diagram. Animation is an effective way in which to present phenomena. The rotation of the earth, solar eclipse, cell division, or other situations in which moving illustrations are appropriate can be effectively taught through animation. See online examples of animated maps of World War II.

The mastery of those skills which require step by step instruction is facilitated by viewing short repetitive motion picture sequences combined with practice. Today's web-based media players allow the user to examine film sequence content frame by frame. This was not possible with the 8mm cartridge film. A still image on film would often burn by the heat from the projection lamp. Process instruction includes examples such as:

Step by Step Instruction. Shop class instruction can be enhanced through the use of specific step by step instructional materials. The operation of a drill press, for example, is filmed from the user's point of view as the skill is demonstrated in a logical sequence. Other process instruction such as the proper technique for needle injection as part of a nursing program, or the use of a paper copier for preparing overhead transparencies, would be two additional examples. See online example. Source; Knitting.com
Skill Development or Technique Instruction. The development of motor skill techniques often includes the observation of experts. Specific swimming strokes, javelin throwing techniques, appropriate golf swings, the use of a pen in developing calligraphy skills, or learning American sign language, illustrate the use of motion image sequences for modeling skills. See example: Normal-speed Pool and Billiards Video Clip
Drill sequences. The inherent sequencing and pacing characteristics of motion pictures are used to present data in such a way that the individual student can drill and test her/himself to a required level of competence. The mastery of multiplication tables, facts, geographic locations and facts are but some examples.

Micro-documentaries are brief and may be only a few minutes in length. Such films are used to make observations of natural, social, or scientific events. Mini-documentaries might be used to observe cultural activities such as: a Swedish folk dance, a religious baptism, the carving of an African mask, or the making of an Indian canoe. A compilation of micro-films might form a visual encyclopedia of a culture on disc or web site. See online exampe: Dodge Nature Center, West Saint Paul, MN.
Record films. These are recordings of talks, lecturer presentations, guest speakers or other experts who give are documented for later playback and reference.
Performance films. These are documents or video records of work by actors, dancers, and others for study of technique.
Short Story. A story without conflict resolution would provide students with the opportunity to generate their own story endings. Complete story sequences may be used in a variety of ways. For example, a unit on friction might include a short story about friends learning to roller blade and discovering the basic principles of physics that are involved.
Visualized Abstractions. Analogies or examples describe or clarify the nature of relationships within abstract systems such as in grammar, mathematics, or logic. An example might be a short animated demonstration of how context and intonation affects the interpretation of this short sentence, " I love you" by the receiver for whom it was intended.
Experiential Film. Similar to a micro-documentary but varies in that the subject matter can be most anything which lets the student experience an event, happening, or some experiment vicariously.
Creative or Motivational film. Attempts to create a certain mood that each viewer interprets in his/her own individual manner, usually because the subject matter is organized in a more abstract way. Such films are "raw" material from which students can work.
Motivational imagery. Moving images can serve as a motivational stimulus to writing, art, music composition, and so forth. A sequence showing falling autumn leaves, the flowing of water from rain drops to river and out into the ocean, or, imagery created by the movement of the wind through trees and over sand dunes, can provide a stimulus for creative writing or art activities. Motivational material is experiential and requires the user to observe using both the sense of sight and hearing. There are many excellent existing short films which could be collected on disc and used to stimulate thought and activity in many different curricular areas. An online example of a 1:00 minute loop is this film by Daniel Weiss (2) student at the Dalton School in New York.
Induction or deduction film clips. A series of "raw" visual data is presented for exploration. The overall meaning of the film is never explicitly revealed; it must be discovered. An example of this is a film in which a series of actions is seen in reverse motion.

The moving image has a long history in education and training. New web training sites can make effective use of short sequences to enhance learning. Multimedia designers may give thought as to looking back at "old school" applications to discover new ideas for the digital age. The single concept film's brief appearance in education continues to hold promise in an age of improved delivery and interactive technology.